A Discussion Of Suicide

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What is Suicide?

Suicide is the intentional destruction of one’s own life, where destruction is the permanent and irreversible infliction of death. The term suicide derives from the latin roots sui and cidium. ‘Sui’ may be roughly translated as ‘Self’ and ‘Cidium’ is the root to all latin derived terms relating to killing (ie. regicide, infanticide, fratricide, homicide) and roughly means ‘to kill’. Thus ‘suicide’ litterally translates to self-killing (or sometimes self-murder where murder requires malice aforethought and cannot originate from a passionate state).

The act of suicide refers specifically to the successful taking of one’s life (such that they cannot be resuscitated and do, in fact, die). This is why the secondary term, suicide attempt exists. Ie. To describe occasions where one attempted to kill themselves but did not, in fact, successfully achieve suicide.

An important, related concept, is that of assisted suicide. Assisted suicide is the act of providing, with intent, the means or knowledge required by another for that other to commit suicide, with the belief that they will attempt to do so. Assisted suicide is not a form of murder, nor is it a form of manslaughter or any derivative of homicide (human-killing): (1) Murder requires a mens rea of malice aforethought, (2) manslaughter requires either (a) a specific duty, or (b) gross negligence, (3) homicide requires the application of death upon another by ones own hand. In saying this; there are certain acts occasionally referred to as assisted suicide which are homicidal. However, these do not contradict what I have just said as they are simply misnomers and not actually instances of assisted suicide. For example; a doctor intentionally overdosing a terminally ill patient with morphein (or similar drugs), even on the patients wishes, is an instance of homicide and not of assisted suicide. It is an instance of a mercy killing which neccesarily involves the application of death onto another person and thereby cannot be an instance of any form of suicide.

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Contributing Factors

There are many risk factors that can contribute to an individual's risk of suicide. To assert that any particular suicide is the result of a single or small number of factors is overly simplistic. Keeping this in mind; the widely accepted risk factors for suicidal ideation and attempted suicide can be categorized into three groups: psychological, social, and environmental.

Psychological risk factors for suicide include:

• Mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia

• Substance abuse

• Previous suicide attempt

• Family history of suicide

• Personal history of physical or sexual abuse

Social risk factors for suicide include:

• Social isolation or loneliness

• Lack of support from family and friends

• Relationship problems

• Financial strain

• Unemployment or job loss

Environmental risk factors for suicide include:

• Easy access to lethal means, such as firearms or drugs

• Exposure to the suicidal behavior of others, such as through media coverage of suicides

• Exposure to traumatic events, such as natural disasters or terrorism

• Chronic pain or physical illness

Once again, it is important to note that the presence of risk factors does not necessarily mean that an individual will attempt suicide. However, the more risk factors present, the greater the risk may be.

If any one risk factor is to be considered most concerning, it seems to be the presence of abnormal, hostile, persistent mental illness. Such illnesses, including both manic and clinical depression, schizophrenia, and generalised anxiety disorder, may be psychopathological responses to stressful life events, such as intense grief. It is much more likely for an individual who suddenly experiences intense mental illness to self-harm than for an individual who has continuously experienced intense mental illness (ie. for whom it is not abnormal) to do so. Depending on the method of measurement and the definition, mental illness may be present in 27% to more than 90% of suicidal instances. Mood disorders in particular, such as major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, are associated with a 20-fold increased risk of suicide. Other mental health conditions that are linked to an increased risk of suicide include schizophrenia, personality disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder, all of which are also correlative to quality of life and to instability of wellbeing.

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Prevention

Suicide prevention refers to any strategy intended to stop a suicide attempt before it occurs in the first instance. It does not apply to later therapeutic / quality of life interventions. There are a number of statistically validated means of preventing individuals from attemping suicide. Many of these means simply provide an additional barrier to completion which nonetheless drastically reduces attempts. This seems to imply that most suicides are impulsive in nature and can be avoided by requiring further deliberate action and time on the part of the suicide. This view is supported by evidence that up to 70% of failed suicide attempts (with firearms in the US) were carried out within an hour of deliberation. Amongst the methods for suicide prevention, perhaps the four most impactful are:

1. Providing support: Individuals who are at risk for suicide benefit from support and assistance from family, friends, and professionals, such as therapists or mental health professionals. Roughly 60% of persons suffering from suicidal ideation do not seek help (a number which is almost certainly underreported)

2. Reducing access to means: Restricting access to means of suicide, such as firearms or medications, or even barring the edge of common suicide bridges (like the Golden Gate Bridge), has been shown to reduce suicide attempts. 

3. Treatment of underlying mental health conditions: Many individuals who die by suicide have underlying mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, or substance abuse disorders. Treating these conditions reduces their risk of suicide.

4. Crisis hotlines: Crisis hotlines can provide immediate support and assistance to individuals who are in crisis and may be considering suicide. These are incredibly effective at preventing individuals from attempting suicide. This is likely because, as mentioned prior, small barriers which require further action and deliberation to overcome, strongly inhibit impulsives decisions as suicide may be.

Overall, preventing suicide requires a multifaceted approach that involves identification and assessment of those at risk, providing support and treatment, reducing access to means, and providing systems of intervention where they are needed.

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Philosophy of Suicide

Theological Views

Abrahamic

Judaism

In Judaism, suicide is generally considered a sin in Orthodox denominations, while non-Orthodox forms may view it as a form of death by illness. Scholars in the tradition advocate for compassion towards those who have died by suicide and their survivors.

Nonetheless, suicides are generally not given the same funeral rites as other individuals and are buried in a separate part of a cemetery. While efforts are often made to excuse suicides, typically by arguing that the person was not in their right mind or that they repented before their death, taking one's own life is generally seen as a last resort to avoid committing certain sins. 

Most authorities in Judaism do not allow hastening death to avoid pain if one is already dying, though the Talmud is somewhat unclear on the matter. However, it is strictly forbidden to assist in suicide or request such assistance, as it is considered tempting someone to sin and a violation of the commandment to not put a stumbling block before the blind. One notable suicide in the Talmud is that of Samson following his blinding and binding.

Christianity

There is ongoing debate among Christians regarding the view on suicide. While early Christians considered it a sinful act and blasphemy, modern Christians often soften their views, though they still consider it wrong and sinful. 

In the Bible, there is no explicit prohibition against suicide and there are several mentions of individuals who died by suicide. However, the descriptions of these individuals are generally negative, with suicide often occurring in contexts of betrayal (ie. Judas) or divine judgments (ie. Saul). 

Many Christian theologians view suicide unfavorably. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that suicide is a sin that violates the commandment "Thou shalt not kill", but the gravity of the sin and the culpability of the individual may vary based on the circumstances. The Church used to deny a Catholic funeral and burial in consecrated ground to those who died by suicide, but this practice has since changed. 

Protestants, including Evangelicals, Charismatics, and Pentecostals, often argue that suicide is self-murder and a sin equivalent to killing another person. They may also believe that suicide prevents the individual from accepting salvation through Jesus Christ. 

The Eastern Orthodox Church generally views suicide as a rejection of God's gift of life, a failure of stewardship, and an act of despair that violates the sixth commandment. The Church may deny a Christian burial to those who died by suicide, but may show compassion for those who took their own lives due to mental illness or severe emotional stress. 

Islam

In Islam, suicide is considered a major sin and is strictly forbidden. This prohibition is stated clearly in the Quran:

“O ye who believe! Eat not up your property among yourselves in vanities: But let there be amongst you Traffic and trade by mutual good-will: Nor kill (or destroy) yourselves: for verily Allah hath been to you Most Merciful!” (The Quran n.d.)

A prohibition is also recorded in the hadith, the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad:

“Narrated Abu Huraira-:

The Prophet said, "He who commits suicide by throttling shall keep on throttling himself in the Hell Fire (forever) and he who commits suicide by stabbing himself shall keep on stabbing himself in the Hell-Fire.” (Sahih al-Bukhari 2:23:446) (Funerals (Al-Janaa'iz) n.d.)

From these and other excerpts, many Muslim scholars and clerics view suicide, including suicide attacks, as strictly forbidden.

Indic

Hinduism

In Hinduism, suicide is generally viewed as a spiritually unacceptable act that violates the principle of non-violence (ahimsa). It is considered to be as sinful as murder and may result in the individual becoming a ghost, wandering the earth until the time they would have otherwise died. According to the Mahabharata, those who commit suicide can never reach the blessed realms of heaven. However, there are certain exceptions in Hinduism, such as the practice of Prayopavesa, in which an elderly yogi who has no remaining responsibilities or desires may choose to end their own life.

Jainism

In Jainism, suicide is considered the worst form of violence (himsā) and is not allowed. Nonviolence (ahimsā) is a central doctrine in Jainism. However, the Jain text Puruşārthasiddhyupāya does mention the practice of sallekhanā, which involves fasting until death when one is near the end of their life. This practice is not considered suicide because the individual observing it is free of attachments and other passions.

Buddhism

Buddhism dharma is often in tension with views of suicide and self-sacrifice. Buddhism teaches that suffering, or dukkha,  is an essential aspect to existence. It also teaches that everything is impermanent and this leads to a dissatisfaction with life. However, instead of advocating for suicide, Buddhism promotes following the Noble Eightfold Path to break out of samsara and avoid dukkha. 

With this is mind, there are exceptions to the prohibition on suicide. There is a story of a monk named Godhika, living in the time of Guatama Buddha, who was suffering from painful illness and repeatedly achieved temporary mental liberation, but was unable to achieve final enlightenment (Nirvana) due to his illness. In one such state of mental liberation, he decided to cut his own throat in the hopes of being released from suffering. According to the story, the Buddha stated that Godhika's actions demonstrated that he was not attached to life and had achieved final enlightenment through his death. Specifically, he is said to have remarked:

‘Such indeed is how the steadfast act:

They are not attached to life. Having drawn out craving at its root [existence]

Godhika has attained final Nirvana.’

Similar actions are ritualised in the Japanese tradition of Sokushinbutsu (self-mummification or living-mummification). Thus we see that in certain instances suicide as the embrace of non-existance is acceptable. With this still in mind, there are certain schools of Buddhism, particularly Theravada Buddhism (the oldest school), where even inferring that death is preferable to life is seen as a breach of Ahimsa, the first and highest of the Five Precepts, and is punishable by expulsion from the Sangha (community of Monks).

Secular Views

Let us now discuss the perspective of some of the most prominent and respected philosophers who have spoken on this field. It should be noted that none of the views to be asserted are necessarily my own, nor do I necessarily agree with them. We shall begin with the ‘negative’ stances. That is, those stances that which assert that suicide is an immoral action or one to be shunned, at least in the general case.

Negative Stances

Perhaps the most common stance in regions impacted by the spread of Abrahamic philosophies, though not necessarily those impacted by other philosophies, is that suicide is immoral and unethical. Although the logical default for any action is that it is morally neutral (ie. neither good nor bad), it is strangely uncommon to find any non-academic with enough mental control to assert this position. This is likely because, as unfortunate as it is, most persons moral positions are straight derivatives of their emotions and thus are entirely irrational at base. This is contrary to human nature and debasing our uniquely rational capacities. I ask then that you, reader, enter into the following discourses in good faith, as a rational agent, dispassionately, with reason in mind, without regard for emotion or empathy, as all moral discussions ought to be had. Control your passions, lest they control you.

Therefore, keeping in mind that most people will oppose suicide, not for any good reason, simply because it upsets them, we can proceed to outline some of the more rational arguments against suicide.

Plato

The secular ethics of suicide has a rich tradition which (in one historical narrative) can be traced back to the philosophical schools in Ancient Greece, many of which held particular views on death and suicide. Each school came to form their own views as to the acceptable reasons for suicide and some even came to view it as the ultimate act of courage.

First, consider the case of Plato’s Socrates, who ultimately committed suicide by accepting his fate. In his Phaedo (2008) Socrates, by now sentenced to death by poisoning, reconciles with his disciple Cebes:

“There is a doctrine whispered in secret that man is a prisoner who has no right to open the door and run away; this is a great mystery which I “do not quite understand. Yet I too believe that the gods are our guardians, and that we are a possession of theirs. Do you not agree?

Yes, I quite agree, said Cebes.

And if one of your own possessions, an ox or an ass, for example, took the liberty of putting himself out of the way when you had given no intimation of your wish that he should die, would you not be angry with him, and would you not punish him if you could?

Certainly, replied Cebes.

Then, if we look at the matter thus, there may be reason in saying that a man should wait, and not take his own life until God summons him, as he is now summoning me.” (Plato 2008)

Therefore, we see that Plato (presumeably) through Socrates believed that those who committed suicide were condemnable except in cases of dures. 

Aristotle

Similarly, that philosopher’s prodigy, Aristotle believed that suicide was vicious by default and required justification to actualise:

“As we have said, then, courage is a mean with respect to things that inspire confidence or fear, in the circumstances that have been stated; and it chooses or endures things because it is noble to do so, or because it is base not to do so. But to die to escape from poverty or love or anything painful is not the mark of a brave man, but rather of a coward; for it is softness to fly from what is troublesome, and such a man endures death not because it is noble but to fly from evil.” (Aristotle n.d., Chapter 7)

Nonetheless, he accepted Socrates suicide by asserting it was noble for him to enter into death as an expression of the justice of the state.

Classical Liberalism

John Stuart Mill argued in his essay “On Liberty” (2011) that the essence of liberty is the ability to make choices, and any choice that deprives an individual of the ability to make further choices should be prevented. Therefore, Mill believed that selling oneself into slavery should be prohibited because it would take away the ability to make future choices. He took a similar view as to suicide, as it destroys the freedom of the individual:

“In this and most other civilised countries, for example, an engagement by which a person should sell himself, or allow himself to be sold, as a slave, would be null and void; neither enforced by law nor by opinion. The ground for thus limiting his power of voluntarily disposing of his own lot in life, is apparent, and is very clearly seen in this extreme case. The reason for not interfering, unless for the sake of others, with a person's voluntary acts, is consideration for his liberty. His voluntary choice is evidence that what he so chooses is desirable, or at the least endurable, to him, and his good is on the whole best provided for by allowing him to take his own means of pursuing it. But by selling himself for a slave, he abdicates his liberty; he forgoes any future use of it, beyond that single act. He therefore defeats, in his own case, the very purpose which is the justification of allowing him to dispose of himself. He is no longer free; but is thenceforth in a position which has no longer the presumption in its favour, that would be afforded by his voluntarily remaining in it. The principle of freedom cannot require that he should be free not to be free. It is not freedom, to be allowed to alienate his freedom.” (Mill 2011, pp. 194-195)

Thus Mill asserts that principles of freedom do not allow for someone to give up their freedom.

Deontology

Kant was quite a strict opponent of suicide, following a similar line to JS Mill. In his text, the Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals (2019), he outlines formulations of the Categorical Imperative, the defining axiom of all deontological thought. The second formulation of that axiom, also called the ‘practical imperative’, is given as such: 

“Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or anyone else’s, never merely as a means, but also always as an end.” (Kant 2019)

To say that a person is an end in themselves is just to say that they have unconditional (ie. intrinsic) value. That is, their value doesn’t depend on any contingent (transient) factor but is derived from the concept itself a priori. For Kant, it is irrational and thereby forbidden to destroy something of unconditional value for the sake of something merely conditionally valuable. Therefore, Kant asserts that “He who contemplates suicide should ask himself whether his action can be consistent with the idea of humanity as an end in itself”. 

If one seeks suicide for transient reasons, ie. happiness or the avoidance of suffering, Kant would forbid you from engaging in it. This is because, as he remarks, you use yourself (in your suicide) merely as a means (merely because you destroy your rational capacity when you kill yourself) to a conditional end (happiness or the avoidance of suffering). 

This hits on another fundamental aspect of Deontology. Kant’s morality is grounded in pure reason and applies to rational actors alone. Because of this suicide is the ultimate wrong as it destroys the object of morality (the rational actor) and thereby destroys all potential of good (carried by that actor) and thereby creates a moral contradiction which cannot be permitted.

Absurdism

Existentialism is a branch of philosophy defined by the view that humans (and all things) arrive without intrinsic purpose. From here, different schools of existentialism differ as to the existence of purpose and whether it can be attained. Existential nihilism, for example, asserts that there we are born without purpose and can not attain any purpose or meaning.  Absurdism is another, more optimistic, branch of existentialism which asserts there is no meaning to be found between the human and the world. The human’s fanatical search for purpose in the world results in the ‘absurd’; the paradoxical behaviour of acceptance that the world (ie. states of affairs) can have no intrinsic purpose whilst also continuing to search for meaning thereof. With this in mind, Absurdists are not Nihilists. They generally assert that one can find (subjective) meaning in the human alone (ie. not between us and the world). This is because the absurdity, as they see it, only lies between the normativity of our minds and the factuality of the world, or between the rationality of our being and the irrationality and indifference of the world (similar to Cosmicism). Absurdism is the philosophy which when asked ‘Why me?’ responds ‘There is no reason’.This means, for example, one can assert or construct a meaning for themselves, or a , so long as that meaning is not given to them by another (ie. so long as it is not an act of bad faith) or by the world (ie. so long as it is sincere). Great examples of absurdist media include Camus’ The Myth of Sisyphus (2005), Kafka’s The Trial (2005), and, more recently,  Kwan and Scheinert’s Everything Everywhere All at Once (2022).

Albert Camus, the father of Absurdism, believed that the purpose of absurdism was to determine whether suicide was a justified response to a world without an objective purpose to life. Camus believed that suicide was a rejection of freedom and that turning to illusions, religion, or death as a way to escape the absurdity of life was not a viable solution. Instead of trying to escape the meaningless nature of life, Camus believed that we should embrace it fully and passionately. 

Jean-Paul Sartre, one of the fathers of existentialism, described the protagonist of Camus' The Stranger, Meursault, as someone who “wants to live, without relinquishing any of his certainty, without a future, without hope, without illusions ... and without resignation either” (n.d.). Sartre said that Meursault, who was sentenced to death, looked at death with a sense of fascination and that this freed him to experience a “divine irresponsibility”. True freedom, for the absurdist, is a willingness to accept all that comes to you and find meaning in its absurdity. This is why Camus famously ends his The Myth of Sisyphus with the remark: “One must imagine Sisyphus happy.” (2005, p.119)

Positive Stances

Against the previous set, the following arguments can be called ‘positive’ stances. This doesn’t necessarily mean that they are in favour of suicide (ie. like the Church of Euthanasia). Typically, it implies that they are in favour of permitting suicide and thus promoting an individual’s choice in the matter, one way or the other.

Confucianism

Confucianism is a philosophy originating in ancient China based on the teachings of the philosopher Confucius. It emphasises the importance of relationships, personal and social ethics, and the cultivation of virtue. It also places a strong emphasis on education and the role of the individual in a wider society.

Confucianism teaches that the ultimate goal of human life is to achieve harmony and balance in all aspects of life, including relationships with others, the natural world, and the spiritual world. Following from this, failure to adhere to certain values in Confucianism is worse than death. As a result, suicide can be considered morally acceptable and even praiseworthy if it is done to uphold these values. For example, Confucianism places a strong emphasis on loyalty, self-sacrifice, and honor, which has often led to the justification of altruistic suicide. The Confucian philosopher Mencius wrote that it is better to die than to fail to uphold values such as ren (humaneness, compassion):

“Life is what I want; yi [righteousness] is also what I want. If I cannot have both, I would rather take yi than life. On the one hand, though life is what I want, there is something I want more than life. That is why I do not cling to life at all cost. On the other hand, though death is what I loathe, there is something I loathe more than death [shame or unrighteousness].” (2004)

Stoics

Dissimilar to the contemporaneous Platonic and Aristotelian schools, the Stoics (especially the later Roman Stoics like Cicero and Seneca) held a more neutral / instrumental view of suicide. According to Stoicism, suicide can be acceptable if an individual is unable to live a naturally fulfilling life due to a lack of necessary resources, regardless of their character or virtue. This is because certain "natural advantages," such as good health, are necessary for happiness, and a wise person who recognizes that they are lacking in their life may choose to end their life as a way to neither enhance nor diminish their moral virtue. As Cicero puts it:

“When a man's circumstances contain a preponderance of things in accordance with nature, it is appropriate for him to remain alive; when he possesses or sees in prospect a majority of the contrary things, it is appropriate for him to depart from life. This makes it plain that it is on occasion appropriate for the Wise Man to quit life although he is happy, and also of the Foolish Man to remain in life although he is miserable… Therefore the reasons both for remaining in life and for departing from it are to be measured entirely by the primary things of nature aforesaid. For the virtuous man is not necessarily retained in life by virtue, and also those who are devoid of virtue need not necessarily seek death. And very often it is appropriate for the Wise Man to abandon life at a moment when he is enjoying supreme happiness, if an opportunity offers for making a timely exit.” (1931) 

According to this Romanised stoicism, not only can one's obligations to others justify suicide, but so too can considerations of one's own well-being. The Roman stoic Seneca, who was forced to commit suicide himself, argued that since the goal is to live well rather than simply to stay alive, a wise person lives for as long as they ought to, not as long as they can. Therefore, it is the quality rather than the quantity of one's life that is important.

Schopenhauer

Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher best known for his work The World as Will and Representation in which he proposed his interpretation of idealism and introduced the influential concept of the ‘will to life’ (which influenced Nietzche’s ‘will to power’). Schopenhauer was a deeply pessimistic philosopher who believed that the world was governed by a blind, irrational force that he referred to as the ‘will’. He believed that this force was the driving force behind all human behaviour and that it was the source of much of the suffering and misery in the world.

He remains known as a highly influential philosopher in the fields of metaphysics, ethics, and aesthetics and was a key figure in the development of German idealism and the philosophies of Nietzsche and Kierkegaard. In his writings, Schopenhauer was famously clear and concise, which is not to say their concepts are easily interpreted. 

The most relevant text for this writing from amongst his incredible catalogue is the short essay On Suicide (1913) which is a part of his wider book Studies in Pessimism. In that text, Schopenhauer first presents the descriptive view of suicide. He asserts that it goes against the natural desire of all living beings to preserve and further their own existence (ie. the ‘will to life’). He further proposes that it represents a breach of the individual's contract with nature and a violation of natural law. However, we must be careful here, these are all descriptive positions and do not, and can not, represent his ethical views. Indeed they don’t harmonise with what we might infer his ethical views would be (from these claims alone). In fact; Schopenhauer does not condemn suicide in any particular manner. Why is this? It is because Schopenhauer, whilst he presented the concept of the ‘will to life’, also believed (in a famously Buddhist-like manner) that this will to life was the cause of much suffering and should ideally be conquered by the will of the individual.

In doing so he began a line of pessimism which would culminate in the diverging paths of Philipp Mainländer and Friedrich Nietzsche. With this view of life in mind; suicide becomes either the ultimate relief from the burden of the will to life or the ultimate submission to its dominance (as those philosophers promixately believed respectively). Schopenhauer generally falls on the former position, writing:

“It will generally be found that, as soon as the terrors of life reach the point at which they outweigh the terrors of death, a man will put an end to his life. But the terrors of death offer considerable resistance; they stand like a sentinel at the gate leading out of this world. Perhaps there is no man alive who would not have already put an end to his life, if this end had been of a purely negative character, a sudden stoppage of existence. There is something positive about it; it is the destruction of the body; and a man shrinks from that, because his body is the manifestation of the will to live.” (1913, p. 49)

“When, in some dreadful and ghastly dream, we reach the moment of greatest horror, it awakes us; thereby banishing all the hideous shapes that were born of the night. And life is a dream: when the moment of greatest horror compels us to break it off, the same thing happens.” (1913, p.50)

With these in mind, it would be unfaithful for me to not also raise his concerns about the act, some of which he alludes to in that same text. For example:

“In my chief work I have explained the only valid reason existing against suicide on the score of mortality. It is this: that suicide thwarts the attainment of the highest moral aim by the fact that, for a real release from this world of misery, it substitutes one that is merely apparent. But from a mistake to a crime is a far cry; and it is as a crime that the clergy of Christendom wish us to regard suicide.” (1913, pp.47-48)

Thus we see that, although he might find suicide unfavourable, Schopenhauer nonetheless views it as an escape from the will to live and act which is not necessarily to be condemned. 

Mainländer

Phillip Mainländer (hereby ‘Mainlander’) was a German philosopher, strongly influenced and almost entirely centred by Schopenhauer, best known for his work The Philosophy of Redemption. In that text he is one of the earliest proponents of a system of ethics and anthropology after “death of God” (a concept Nietzche would later popularise). He was a deeply pessimist philosopher who shared Schopenhauer views of the world as controlled by (multiple) irrational forces referred to as “wills”. He believed that this force was the source of all suffering and that the only way to escape it was through the “death of God” which he saw as the ultimate redemption from suffering.

In many ways, Mainlander and his Opus text can be seen as the final conclusion of Schopenhauer’s pessimism. He variously held that (1) there is no pleasure in living, (2) the nothingness of death represents the ultimate sublimity, (3) non-existence as a state is always preferable, (4) the will-to-death will ultimately subsume all things. That last claim is perhaps the single defining view of his philosophy. On it, Mainlander asserts that the natural state of the universe is towards chaos or towards nothing. The only thing which prevents us from accepting this state is our illusionary belief in the life of god which powers our transitory will to life. If we only thus accept that God is dead, we will then realise that the will to life must be ultimately subsumed by the will to death if we are to achieve true happiness and the bliss of non-existence. In this regard, Mainlander perhaps represents the first thus discussed pro-suicide philosopher. Though, to reduce him merely to such, especially considering the tremendous influence his Magnum Opus had on the contemporary Nietzche, would be a serious flaw. Finally, it would be remiss of me not to note that Mainlander was quite certain of his principles. Very shortly after completing the second and final volume of his central work, which had not yet been published, and after completing a set of memoirs, he committed suicide by hanging, thus fulfilling his will to death.

Nietzche

A contemporary of Mainlander and also a follower of Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche was a German philosopher best known for his critiques of Christian morality and his promotion of the “superman” (or ‘overman) [Übermensch].  His philosophy is based on the idea that traditional moral values and beliefs are oppressive and that individuals should strive to create their own meaning in life. This led him to reject traditional notions of good and evil and argue that individuals should embrace their own desires and ‘will to power’, rather than trying to conform to societal norms.

Nietzsche remains a highly influential and controversial figure in the world of philosophy, and his ideas had a significant impact on the development of existentialism, postmodernism, and other philosophical movements. Although, it was only after his death that his ideas began to gain widespread recognition and influence. 

As regards suicide, Nietzsche had a particularly nuanced complex view. In some of his writings, he seems to view suicide as a noble and heroic act of rebellion which can be justified under certain circumstances. However, in other writings, he seemed to reject suicide as a cowardly and self-defeating act.

As to the former, Nietzsche argued that there may be situations in which an individual's suffering is so great that they may feel driven to end their own life. In such cases, he believed that it was understandable for a person to want to end their suffering and that suicide could be seen as a courageous and heroic act given that they are valiantly stepping into the unknown, particularly against the harsh criticism of society.

As to the latter, Nietzsche also argued that suicide was a sign of weakness and that it was an act of cowardice to give up on life in the face of adversity. He argued that strong individuals like the Übermensch were able to overcome their suffering and find meaning in their lives, even in the face of great hardships.

Overall, Nietzsche's view on suicide was somewhat ambivalent and depended on the circumstances in which it occurred. While he recognized that there may be situations in which suicide could be seen as a heroic act, he also believed that it was generally undertaken from a point of weakness and as a self-defeating act.

In conclusion, suicide is a complex, ethically nuanced topic. There are brilliant and influential philosophers who fall on either side of the topic. It is not to be dismissed out of hand. The purpose of this writing has not been to profess a bias towards one side or the other but to enable myself to become informed and to inform any who would read it.

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Reference List

Aristotle, n.d., ‘Book III’, in Nicomachean Ethics, The Internet Classics Archive, trans. WD Ross, viewed 3rd January, <http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.3.iii.html>

Camus, A 2005, The Myth of Sisyphus, Penguin Books Great Ideas, London

Cicero, 1931, ‘Book III’, in De Finibus, viewed 3rd January, <https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_Finibus/3*.html>

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